“Carotenoids” is the term which describes the large range of more than 600 pigments which give many plants their characteristic red, orange or yellow colouring. Amongst those most commonly found in modern Western diets are alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene.

Most attention has been paid to alpha-carotene and beta-carotene as these can be synthesized by the body to form vitamin A, which is one of the body’s most powerful antioxidants, immune system boosters and infection fighters. Neither lutein, zeaxanthin nor lycopene are “pro-vitamin A” active substances in this sense, but this should not be taken as detracting from their nutritional value in any way.

Indeed, the evidence now indicates that these lesser known carotenoids also function as valuable fat-soluble anti-oxidants within the body. Lycopene, in particular, is now even thought to be responsible for many of the anti-oxidant functions previously credited to beta-carotene. Research suggests that as a highly fat-soluble anti-oxidant, lycopene is particularly important in preventing free radical damage to the delicate but vital fatty structures of the body’s cells, such as the membranes.

It also seems possible that lycopene may be at least as important as beta-carotene in protecting against the oxidation of Low Density Lipids (LDLs), the so-called “bad cholesterol”, which is now widely held to be a principal cause of atherosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries - the precursor of serious cardio-vascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke.

Like beta-carotene, lycopene has also generated much excitement as a potential weapon against cancer, probably because of its general anti-oxidant function, but also because of its proven role in keeping open the pathways between cells which are vital to allow the immune system to kill off cancer cells in the early stages of the disease.

In 1995 the Journal of the National Cancer Institute reported research suggesting a 45% reduction in rates of prostate cancer for men consuming a lycopene rich diet – ie one containing considerable quantities of processed tomatoes. Other studies have since indicated a role for lycopene in combatting lung, stomach, colon and breast cancer; in protecting against cardiovascular disease, and as an immune system booster.

Unfortunately the consumption of a diet rich in lycopene presents practical problems which do not arise with the better known carotenoids, alpha and beta-carotene, because it is not nearly so widely available in common foodstuffs. It is lycopene which gives tomatoes their characteristic vivid red colour, and it is this fruit which is by far the richest source. But it is the processing and/or cooking of tomatoes which makes available far more lycopene than would be provided by the raw fruit.

So a cup of regular tomato paste may contain more than 75,000 mcg of lycopene, tomato puree more than 50,000, a regular can of tomato soup more than 25,000 and canned tomato juice perhaps 20,000. A serving of raw tomatoes, by contrast, will provide a mere 5,000. So rather than rely on raw tomatoes, unless you can consume truly heroic quantities, you’d do better to try a cup of canned mixed vegetable juice at around 23,000 mcg or even a slice of watermelon which may yield up to 13,000 mcg.

The above figures make it clear that processed tomatoes are the best source of significant dietary lycopene, but the problem with this from the point of view of the health purist is that the processing of tomatoes into soup, paste or puree commonly involves the addition of considerable amounts of salt and sugar – just what your body doesn’t need if you’re seeking extra protection for your heart and circulatory system.

It also needs to be remembered when planning a lycopene rich diet that, as with other carotenes, the optimum absorption requires the presence of dietary fat. This is not so easy to achieve with tomatoes unless you’re thinking about the rich kind of meat and tomato sauce commonly eaten with pasta, or smothering a fatty meal with ketchup. Nothing wrong with either option in moderation of course, but they’re hardly healthy ways to get the lycopene you need every day.

So tomato juice in the purest form possible is probably the best means of obtaining significant dietary lycopene. That Bloody Mary with accompanying potato chips may be doing you some good after all!

Supplements containing lycopene are also readily available as an alternative, but opinions are divided as to their effectiveness. Conventional medicine tends to accept the value of a diet rich in carotenoids, but argues that the positive effects may be due to factors associated with such diets other than the carotenoids themselves. Alternative practitioners, of course, admit to no such doubts and are therefore convinced of the benefits of specific carotenoid supplementation.

So as ever, the commonsense advice for maximum benefit appears to be to combine supplementation with a normal daily diet already well supplied with lycopene rich foods.

Resveratrol has recently attracted great interest in connection with the the so-called “French Paradox” which has long puzzled medical science. As a polyphenol type flavonoid it is in any case a very useful anti-oxidant, but many now believe it also to be the explanation of the relatively low rates of cardiovascular disease enjoyed in France despite a national diet traditionally rich in cholesterol and saturated fat. The French, of course, are also known as high per capita consumers of alcohol, particularly in the form of red wine.

Recent research appears to have established that the consumption of alcohol in moderation offers significant protection for the cardiovascular system, and may even reduce the incidence of related diseases by as much as 30%. There is good evidence, however, that the resveratrol which is almost unique to red wine may provide benefits which go far beyond those which can be explained by the effects of the alcohol alone

This is not surprising in so far as fat-soluble anti-oxidants are known to be important protectors of the circulatory system against damaging attack from free radicals, and the resveratrol and other polyphenols found in red wine are likely to be highly beneficial in this context. Laboratory research, moreover, has revealed significant anti-inflammatory and blood anti-coagulant effects arising from the action of resveratrol.

But there’s still more to resveratrol than this. It’s known that some potentially harmful compounds in the body do not become carcinogenic unless and until they are metabolised by particular enzymes. Resveratrol has been shown in some laboratory research to help inhibit the activity of these enzymes and it seems possible that resveratrol may therefore have some protective effect against certain cancers.

Resveratrol has also been shown in the laboratory to slow the proliferation of DNA damaged cells, which have the potential to become cancerous, and to allow time for the repair or removal of DNA damaged cells before rapid and harmful proliferation can occur. Invasive cancer tumours depend on specialised enzymes to allow them to take over healthy tissue and also need to establish their own blood supply if they are to develop. Resveratrol has been found in the laboratory to have inhibiting effects on both these processes, perhaps principally because of its anti-inflammatory qualities.

Orthodox opinion, however, currently maintains that more large scale trials are required outside the laboratory before any protective effects of resveratrol against cancer can be definitively established.

But the anti-inflammatory properties of resveratrol may also have a significant protective effect in the battle against atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), a significant precursor of serious cardiovascular disease. Resveratrol has also been shown to play an important role in preventing the formation of the blood clots which if they obstruct a coronary or cerebral artery may lead to a heart attack or stroke, two of the leading causes of premature death or disability in the affluent Western world.

And amazingly enough it appears that resveratrol may also have a more direct effect in terms of increasing longevity. A good deal of research has shown that reduced calorie intake may increase lifespans, including those of certain mammalian species, apparently by increasing the activity of specific enzymes. Resveratrol has also been shown to stimulate these enzymes and to enhance the life spans of worms and fruit flies. It is not known whether these findings would be replicated in higher life forms, humans included, but there seems no logical reason why they should not.

To obtain a significant intake of this potentially highly beneficial compound from wine you need to concentrate on red wine, because only this is produced by a pulp fermentation including the red or black grape skins where most of the resveratrol is found. As a rule of thumb, the richer and darker the colour of the wine, the longer the pulp fermentation will have lasted, and the more resveratrol and other polyphenols the wine will contain. Generally speaking it is those produced in the sunnier latitudes which will have the highest concentration.

No toxicity issues have been reported from the intake of resveratrol, as such, although problems of course may arise if red wine is used to excess to achieve a desired high intake. Supplements of resveratrol providing up to 50 mg are now readily available, however; whilst moderate consumption of alcohol is now generally recognised as potential boon to health, and to be particularly protective of the cardiovascular system. So there seems to be every reason to continue to enjoy a couple of glasses of wine of an evening. And your enjoyment can only be increased by the awareness that the resveratrol it contains may well be doing your health a power of good.

Methionine is one of the 10 essential amino acids which cannot be manufactured in the body, and must therefore be obtained from the diet. Like other amino acids, methionine is vital for the formation of the countless proteins which make up not only the body’s dry tissue, but many of its vital enzymes. Logically enough, as it is an essential component of protein, it is protein foods which are the best source of dietary methionine. Meat, poultry, fish and dairy products are known as first class proteins because they contain all of the essential amino acids. A diet containing a good supply of each of these food groups should normally provide sufficient amino acids, including methionine, for most purposes, but vegetarians can also achieve satisfactory intakes through careful food combining.

Particular attention, however, has been focussed on methionine as the precursor of s-adenosyl methionine, also known as SAM or SAM-e, a compound produced naturally in the body by the metabolism of methionine. S-adenosyl methionine was isolated in Europe in the 1950s, and has been used there as a prescription drug, but it has only very recently been seen as a food supplement in the US. A large number of biochemical reactions are known to require its presence, including the transmission of nerve impulses between cells. Conventional medical opinion insists that healthy people should obtain all the SAM-e they need for these purposes from their intake of dietary methionine, but various clinical or sub-clinical conditions may affect the body’s ability to metabolize SAM-e in this way.

In particular, the brains of sufferers from depression have been observed to be deficient in s-adenosyl methionine as well as serotonin, the so-called “feel-good” hormone. There is some good research evidence from Europe that supplementation with between 800 and 1,600 mg per day of SAM-e increased serotonin levels, significantly improved the condition of patients suffering from moderately severe clinical depression, and was also helpful in some more severe cases. This research appears to validate the long standing practice of methionine supplementation by psychiatrists interested in the possibilities of nutritional therapy.

So there appear to be encouraging grounds for believing that methionine or SAM-e may be useful alternatives to conventional drug therapies in some cases of depression, and may offer similar benefits without the side effects of drugs.

But depression is only one of the conditions for which s-adenosyl methionine appears to offer therapeutic value. There’s also good evidence from European studies that supplement doses similar to those used to tackle depression may be useful in tackling problems with liver function, including hepatitis and even cirrhosis. And given SAM-e’s apparent potential for boosting emotional and psychological health, it has been suggested by some therapists that it may be useful in the rehabilitation programs of alcoholics and drug addicts.

At least one large scale study has shown the anti-inflammatory effects of s-adenosyl methionine to provide to relief from the symptoms of osteo-arthritis, and there are some more speculative grounds for believing that it may also be of benefit to sufferers from Parkinson’s disease and multiple sclerosis.

Orthodox medical opinion, however, insists that more research is required before the potential value of s-adenosyl methionine for any of the above conditions can be definitively established. While these concerns may appear to reflect undue caution, it is certainly true in any case that supplements of methionine or any other amino acid should not be taken in isolation for any extended period of time because of the risk of creating an imbalance.

And importantly, in the case of s-adenosyl methionine, it needs to be noted that there is a potential risk of supplementation leading to a build up of homocysteine. This is another amino acid produced naturally in the body, but excess levels of which are known to be a factor in increasing the risk of cardiovascular and related diseases. Fortunately, however, this is a risk which may be easily avoided simply by ensuring a generous intake of the B vitamins, folic acid, B6 and B12. And, as always with the B complex, these do not function correctly in isolation, so that a good dietary supply of the entire complex is also required.

With this important caveat, and although its potential benefits have perhaps been exaggerated in the media, it does appear that supplementation with s-adenosyl methionine may be worth trying for sufferers of the specific conditions highlighted above, whose natural levels of methionine and SAM-e are likely to have been depressed both by their condition itself and other factors.

The subject of a great deal of intense research by conventional medicine, nutritional therapists and sports scientists for at least fifty years, arginine is now regarded as one of the most important and potentially beneficial amino acids. Technically it’s known as one of the “non-essential” amino acids, but the term in this sense means only that it can be manufactured within the body and therefore need not necessarily be obtained from the daily diet.

“Non-essential” does not in any way imply that these amino acids are unimportant. Put simply, you need the full range of both essential and non-essential amino acids to form the countless proteins from which your body is largely made. Increasingly, however, there’s evidence that individual amino acids may have more specific functions, with increasing interest in the possibility of using supplementation with single amino acids to tackle particular conditions.

Arginine, for example, has been credited with helping the body to generate crucially important hormones, particularly human growth hormone; with improving sexual health and function; increasing muscle mass whilst reducing body fat; reducing cholesterol; stimulating the immune system and enhancing immune system responses.

But perhaps the most important potential benefit of arginine is its effect upon the health of the cardiovascular system. There is some research evidence that doses of 6g or more daily may help reduce low density lipids (LDL), the so-called “bad cholesterol”, and that arginine may also significantly improve circulation.

Arginine is also an important precursor of nitric oxide, an important transmitter of neural nerve impulses, and a compound known to help maintain circulation in the tiny blood vessels of the brain, protecting against debilitating and possibly fatal strokes. For the immune system, arginine acts as a stimulant for the thymus gland, helping to generate the immune cells vital for tackling infection.

There is also good research to suggest that arginine may have a “protein sparing” effect, making available the maximum amount of protein for muscle growth. This has been found very useful in the treatment of those, for example the elderly, who have suffered from muscle wasting and weakness. But when coupled with arginine’s apparent potential as a fat burner, and its stimulation of the production of human growth hormone; its obvious potential as an athletic performance supplement, particularly for strength and power athletes and body builders, has of course been the cause of great excitement in these communities. Arginine is also an important precursor for the body’s manufacture of creatine, known as the “natural steroid” for its muscle and strength building potentiality.

The US Food and Nutrition Board has not prescribed a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for arginine, probably adhering to the traditional view that a diet adequate in protein will almost by definition provide sufficient amino acids. It is certainly true that outright deficiencies of arginine are rarely if ever seen in individuals whose diet contains enough protein, which means most of us in the affluent West. And it is also true that requirements for arginine and other individual amino acids vary widely between individuals, making the establishment of a meaningful RDA even more difficult than usual.

However, good sources of arginine in the diet include dairy products and meat, particularly beef, pork, chicken and turkey. Wheatgerm, grains, nuts, seafood and even chocolate may also help boost arginine intake. An increase in the consumption of any of these, particularly the animal proteins, will also of course increase the intake of arginine, and a diet including normal quantities of these foods will usually prevent deficiencies.

It will not necessarily, however, be enough to provide the major therapeutic benefits of arginine, for which most practitioners agree free-form supplementation is required in quantities of at least several grams a day, preferably taken on an empty stomach. Although it is nomally held that the maximum benefits of arginine are obtained when it is taken in isolation, an exception is in seeking to boost the immune system, when it seems that taking arginine together with lysine, another amino acid, may greatly enhance its effects.

As with other amino acids, supplementation with arginine is generally very safe and no ill effects, other than perhaps relatively minor gastric upsets, should be observed even at many times the recommended therapeutic doses. But important exceptions to this are pregnant women and new mothers, people suffering from herpes and similar infections, and sufferers from liver or kidney disease. If arginine is taken at all by these groups, it should only be with medical advice.

In any event, supplementation with single amino acids always carries the risk of creating biochemical imbalances within the body and should not be undertaken indefinitely without qualified supervision. Body builders and strength and power athletes may, for example, find it beneficial to use arginine during the “bulk up” phase of the training cycle, thereafter reverting to a more balanced program of supplementation.

Another word of caution is that as well as its benefits, the nitric oxide produced by arginine is also a free radical with potentially harmful ageing and degenerative effects on the body’s cells. This oxidative action does not remove the possible benefits of taking arginine, but it does mean that any supplement program should be combined with a good range of anti-oxidants, including coenzyme Q10 and lipoic acid. And for best results, these should always be taken with comprehensive multi-vitamin and multi-mineral supplements.

Manganese is one of those elements commonly referred to as “trace” minerals within the human body, because they’re found and required only in relatively tiny quantities. But that description should not be taken as reducing the importance of manganese in any way. Indeed the very name is derived from the Ancient Greek word for magic; evidencing the special powers which they attributed to it. Modern science is probably too cautious to go as far as that, but there’s no doubt that manganese has a number of vital functions within the body.

Manganese is an essential element in the production of a number of vital enzymes. Perhaps particularly important amongst these is superoxide dismutase, an anti-oxidant enzyme which has a crucial role in protecting the mitochondria of every cell in the body from the oxidative free radical damage which can lead to DNA damage, premature ageing and even, eventually, degenerative disease. Manganese dependent enzymes are also essential for the effective metabolism of protein and carbohydrates from the diet, as well as cholesterol.

In addition to helping maintain normal cholesterol levels, it has also been noted that cardiac patients tend to have depleted levels of manganese in the heart muscle, and there is research evidence to suggest that manganese may also help protect against arterial damage.

Manganese is also regarded as important for bone and joint health. Some commercial preparations containing glucosamine, a popular supplement marketed as an aid to joint flexibility and for reducing the pain of osteo-arthritis, also contain significant quantities of a manganese compound, and there’s evidence that manganese, like glucosamine, has a significant effect in helping the repair of joint cartilage. Low blood levels and deficiencies of manganese have also been associated with an increased incidence of osteoporosis, ie brittle bones; and wound healing depends on prolidase, another manganese activated enzyme.

Although orthodox medicine remains reluctant to accept the link, there is evidence that low levels of manganese are associated with the glucose intolerance characteristic of diabetes, and, coincidentally or not, it has also been noted that many so-called “natural” nutritional therapies for the disease are often based on manganese rich herbs. No one is claiming that manganese supplements may act as an alternative treatment for diabetes, but many practitioners maintain that when taken together with a manganese rich diet, they may well assist sufferers to manage their blood sugar levels.

Finally, a number of research reports have confirmed an associative, but not necessarily causal, relationship between low manganese levels and brain (epileptic) seizures in both humans and other animals. Whilst it is generally recognised that more research is required, it seems reasonable to suggest that ensuring good levels of manganese in the body may have some protective effect.

The US Food and Nutrition Board has recommended an upper safe limit for manganese intake of 11 mg a day for adults, and there are potential concerns about manganese toxicity. These appear to arise, however, from the direct inhalation of manganese dust and the consumption of manganese contaminated water or heavily polluted air, rather than from diet or supplements.

These external pollutants apart, there is much more likely to be a deficiency of manganese than an excess. Whole grains, leafy green vegetables, certain fruits and green or black tea are reasonably good sources, but many modern Western diets may still struggle to provide even the minute amounts required. As usual, the stripping of nutrients from the soil along with our increased dietary reliance on heavily refined grains are the main culprits. But in the case of manganese this problem is compounded by its negative interaction with other essential minerals needed by the body in larger quantities. It appears, for example, that the absorption of manganese from food decreases in proportion with the amount of iron contained in that food, and the amount of iron stored in the body.

Blood levels of both manganese and the important anti-oxidant, superoxide dismutase have been found to be reduced in individuals following a program of iron supplementation, and similar results have been found in people supplementing with magnesium, as is very commonly recommended in the interests of cardiac and cardiovascular health.

Relatively high doses of calcium supplements have also been found to reduce the absorption of manganese and perhaps also increase its rate of excretion from the body.

But none of the above effects should be taken as reasons not to supplement with these other minerals should such a program be regarded as potentially beneficial. They are, however, yet more evidence of the holistic operation of the body’s systems and the mutual interdependence of all the many nutrients on which these rely.

Thankfully, though, the answer to the problem is simple enough. It is to ensure that no supplements of minerals, or for that matter vitamins, are ever taken in isolation, but only in the form of comprehensive multi-vitamin and multi-mineral supplements. And of course, these should always be regarded as being in addition to a nutritionally well balanced diet rather than a replacement for it. Such a multi-mineral supplement should provide more than sufficient manganese but it is also worth noting that good intakes of both vitamin C and zinc, in particular, appear significantly to improve manganese absorption.

Choline is an essential nutrient but not, strictly speaking, a vitamin although it is often mistakenly thought of as a member of the B complex, with which it has numerous functions in common. Choline should be found in abundance in a normally healthy diet, but deficiencies have been linked with cardiovascular and liver disease, as well as impaired cognitive function.

Until as recently as 1998 it was believed that the body could manufacture an adequate supply of choline from the closely associated nutrients, vitamin B12 and folic acid. It is now accepted, however, that although the body can indeed synthesise choline in limited quantities, an adequate supply from the daily diet is also required for the avoidance of a number of potentially serious deficiency conditions and diseases.

Most choline in the body is contained in the phospholipids, a particular type of fat molecule of which the most common, phosphatidylcholine, more commonly known as lecithin, is also an important dietary source of choline.

Choline is known to be crucial for the proper functioning of the brain’s neurotransmitters, and in the form of lecithin is an important element in the composition of cell membranes and effective biochemical communication between cells.

Lecithin, moreover, is vital for the liver’s ability to break down fat and cholesterol into the “Very Low Density Lipoproteins” (VLDLs) which are carried around the body in the bloodstream. Any deficiency of choline or lecithin may therefore result in the liver becoming unable to metabolise dietary fat and cholesterol in this way, and the resulting accumulation may lead to the condition known as “fatty liver” and ultimately perhaps to serious liver disease. Some research even suggests that the changes in the liver brought about by choline deficiency may lead to an increased risk of liver cancer, although not all authorities regard this research as conclusive.

VLDLs are also necessary for the production of the High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs), the so-called “good cholesterol”, which is generally recognised as a significant protector against cardiovascular disease. There is also some evidence, although the research is not yet universally accepted, that choline may assist in the breaking down of homocysteine, a naturally occurring protein within the body, which is strongly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

These protective effects may appear somewhat paradoxical, because the milk, eggs and liver which are the richest food sources of choline have been condemned in the past for the amounts of supposedly dangerous cholesterol they introduce to the body.

A small (3oz) serving of beef liver, for example, will provide more than 350 mg of choline, and a single large egg perhaps 125 mg or more. So strict vegetarians who adopt a low fat, and supposedly low cholesterol diet which excludes these choline rich foods, may paradoxically be placing their cardiovascular health at risk.

Fortunately, however, this is a relatively simple problem to resolve, as supplies of lecithin manufactured from soy beans are readily available from health food stores. A single teaspoon (3.5g) of the granular supplement may provide around 130 mg of choline and is reasonably palatable when sprinkled in suitable drinks or on cereals. Peanuts and wheatgerm are also useful vegetarian sources.

To put the quantities mentioned above in some kind of context: the US Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) has recommended an “Adequate Intake” amount for choline of 550 mg a day, or a mere 4-5 teaspoons of granular lecithin and it has been estimated that most adults are able to obtain between 700 and 1,000 mg a day from a normally healthy diet. Caution should be exercised, however, in the treatment of the FNB recommendation which appears to have been set at the lowest level necessary to avoid liver damage. And it may be noted also that the 700 mg figure for the lower end of the range of normal intake seems perilously close to the 550 mg a day regarded as adequate by the FNB.

But the avoidance of serious damage to a vital organ is, to put it mildly, the very minimum one would reasonably expect of a “healthy” diet, and a very long way indeed from the optimum health which nutritional practitioners insist should be the aim.

For example, although conventional medicine remains reluctant to accept the link as proven, there is some evidence that choline in amounts of up to 1g can improve cognitive function and particularly memory. Choline is known to act as a stimulant to the production of essential neurotransmitting chemicals, and there is also some evidence that high intakes during pregnancy may encourage optimal development of the foetal brain and nervous system.

Although the possible reasons are not fully understood, there is also good evidence that high doses of choline may significantly improve athletic performance in long distance endurance events such as marathon or triathlon.

So given that the FNB has established 3.5 grams (ie 3,500 mg) a day as the upper safe limit for choline intake before any potential (and minor) side-effects might be encountered, and that choline cannot be stored in the body, there seems no reason not to aim for an intake well in excess of the recommended minimum or “adequate” amount.

Granular soy lecithin can provide a simple and convenient means of supplementation with such doses.